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The source document for this Digest states:
The toxicity of mercury depends on its chemical form, and thus symptoms and signs are rather different in exposure to elemental mercury, inorganic mercury compounds, or organic mercury compounds (notably alkylmercury compounds such as methylmercury and ethylmercury salts, and dimethylmercury). The sources of exposure are also markedly different for the different forms of mercury. For alkylmercury compounds, among which methylmercury is by far the most important, the major source of exposure is diet, especially fish and other seafood. For elemental mercury vapour, the most important source for the general population is dental amalgam, but exposure at work may in some situations exceed this by many times. For inorganic mercury compounds, diet is the most important source for the majority of people. However, for some segments of populations, use of skin-lightening creams and soaps that contain mercury, and use of mercury for cultural/ritualistic purposes or in traditional medicine, can also result in substantial exposures to inorganic or elemental mercury.
While it is fully recognised that mercury and its compounds are highly toxic substances for which potential impacts should be considered carefully, there is ongoing debate on how toxic these substances, especially methylmercury, are. New findings during the last decade indicate that toxic effects may be taking place at lower concentrations than previously thought, and potentially larger parts of the global population may be affected. As the mechanisms of subtle toxic effects – and proving whether such effects are taking place – are extremely complex issues, a complete understanding has so far not been reached on this very important question.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3, paragraphs 53 and 54
For more information, see Chapter 3: Toxicology
The source document for this Digest states:
Of the organic mercury compounds, methylmercury occupies a special position in that large populations are exposed to it, and its toxicity is better characterized than that of other organic mercury compounds. Within the group of organic mercury compounds, alkylmercury compounds (especially ethylmercury and methylmercury) are thought to be rather similar as to toxicity (and also historical use as pesticides), while other organic mercury compounds, such as phenylmercury, resemble more inorganic mercury in their toxicity.
Methylmercury is a well-documented neurotoxicant, which may in particular cause adverse effects on the developing brain. Moreover, this compound readily passes both the placental barrier and the blood-brain barrier, therefore, exposures during pregnancy are of highest concern. Also, some studies suggest that even small increases in methylmercury exposures may cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, thereby leading to increased mortality. Given the importance of cardiovascular diseases worldwide, these findings, although yet to be confirmed, suggest that methylmercury exposures need close attention and additional follow-up. Moreover, methylmercury compounds are considered possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B) according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1993), based on their overall evaluation.
Methylmercury can be formed in the environment by microbial metabolism (biotic processes), such as by certain bacteria, and by chemical processes that do not involve living organisms (abiotic processes). Although, it is generally believed that its formation in nature is predominantly due to biotic processes. Significant direct anthropogenic (or human generated) sources of methylmercury are currently not known, although historic sources have existed. Indirectly, however, anthropogenic releases contribute to the methylmercury levels found in nature because of the transformation of other forms. Examples of direct release of organic mercury compounds are the Minamata methylmercury-poisoning event that occurred in the 1950’s where organic mercury by-products of industrial-scale acetaldehyde production were discharged in the local bay, and the Iraqi poisoning events where wheat treated with a seed dressing containing organic mercury compounds were used for bread. Also, new research has shown that methylmercury can be released directly from municipal waste landfills (Lindberg et al., 2001) and sewage treatment plants (Sommar et al., 1999), but the general significance of this source is still uncertain.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3, paragraphs 55 & 56; and Chapter 2, paragraph 47.
For more information, see Chapter 3: Toxicology
| For details on: | See UNEP assessment: |
|---|---|
| Typical effects & symptoms from exposure to Methylmercury | Chapter 3, section 3.2 |
| The Minamata methylmercury-poisoning event | Chapter 3, section 3.2 |
The source document for this Digest states:
The main route of exposure for elemental mercury is by inhalation of the vapours. About 80 percent of inhaled vapours are absorbed by the lung tissues. This vapour also easily penetrates the blood-brain barrier and is a well-documented neurotoxicant. Intestinal absorption of elemental mercury is low. Elemental mercury can be oxidized in body tissues to the inorganic divalent form.
Neurological and behavioural disorders in humans have been observed following inhalation of elemental mercury vapour. Specific symptoms include tremors, emotional lability, insomnia, memory loss, neuromuscular changes, and headaches. In addition, there are effects on the kidney and thyroid. High exposures have also resulted in death. With regard to carcinogenicity, the overall evaluation, according to IARC (1993), is that metallic mercury and inorganic mercuric compounds are not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans (group 3). A critical effect on which risk assessment could be based is therefore the neurotoxic effects, for example the induction of tremor. The effects on the kidneys (the renal tubule) should also be considered; they are the key endpoint in exposure to inorganic mercury compounds. The effect may well be reversible, but as the exposure to the general population tends to be continuous, the effect may still be relevant.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3, paragraphs 57 & 58
For more information, see Chapter 3: Toxicology
The source document for this Digest states:
As mentioned earlier, the general population is primarily exposed to methylmercury through the diet (especially fish) and to elemental mercury vapours due to dental amalgams. Depending on local mercury pollution load, substantial additional contributions to the intake of total mercury can occur through air and water. Also, personal use of skin-lightening creams and soaps, mercury use for religious, cultural and ritualistic purposes, the presence of mercury in some traditional medicines (such as certain traditional Asian remedies) and mercury in the home or working environment can result in substantial elevations of human mercury exposure. For example, elevated air levels in homes have resulted from mercury spills from some old gas meters and other types of spills. Also, elevated mercury levels in the working environment have been reported for example in chlor-alkali plants, mercury mines, thermometer factories, refineries and dental clinics, as well as in mining and manufacturing of gold extracted with mercury. Additional exposures result from the use of Thimerosal/Thiomersal (ethylmercury thiosalicylate) as a preservative in some vaccines and other pharmaceuticals. The relative impacts of mercury from local pollution, occupational exposure, certain cultural and ritualistic practices and some traditional medicines may today vary considerably between countries and regions in the world, and are significant in some regions
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 4, paragraph 63
For more information, see Chapter 4: Current mercury exposure and risk evaluations for human health
The source document for this Digest states:
To put the level of exposures for methylmercury in perspective, for the most widely accepted non-lethal adverse effect (neurodevelopmental effects), the United States (US) National Research Council (NRC, 2000) has estimated the benchmark dose (BMD) to be 58 micrograms per litre (µg/l) total mercury in cord blood (or 10 micrograms per gram (µg/g) total mercury in maternal hair) using data from the Faroe Islands study of human mercury exposures (Grandjean et al., 1997). This BMD level is the lower 95% confidence limit for the exposure level that causes a doubling of a 5% prevalence of abnormal neurological performance (developmental delays in attention, verbal memory and language) in children exposed in-utero in the Faroe Islands study. These are the tissue levels estimated to result from an average daily intake of about 1 µg methylmercury per kg body weight per day (1 µg/kg body weight per day ).
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3, paragraph 59
For more information, see Chapter 3: Toxicology
Guidelines for maximum mercury concentrations in fish and consumption advice vary somewhat among the European countries. In 2001, a group of European scientists evaluated the risks from mercury exposure in Europe and presented their view in this regard in their "Position Paper on Mercury" (Pirrone et al., 2001). Regarding methylmercury, they recommended that the US EPA reference dose should apply in Europe also(…).
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 4: current mercury exposures and risk evaluations for humans, paragraph 273
In a recent assessment of all studies on the exposure-response relationship between inhaled mercury vapour and adverse health effects, IPCS concluded that several studies consistently demonstrate subtle effects on the central nervous system in long-term occupational exposures to mercury vapour at exposure levels of approximately 20 µg/m3 or higher (WHO/IPCS, 2002).
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3: toxicology, paragraph 234
Other adverse effects have been seen in humans with less reliability or at much higher exposures. For methylmercury, effects have been seen on the adult nervous system, on cardiovascular disease, on cancer incidence and on genotoxicity. Also, effects have been reported on heart rate variability and blood pressure in 7 year-old children exposed prenatally, and on cardiovascular mortality in adults. For elemental mercury and inorganic mercuric compounds, effects have been seen on: the excretion of low molecular weight proteins; on enzymes associated with thyroid function; on spontaneous abortion rates; genotoxicity; respiratory system; gastrointestinal (digestion) system; liver; immune system; and the skin.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3, paragraph 60
For more information, see Chapter 3: Toxicology
| For details on: | See UNEP assessment: |
|---|---|
| Exposure to elemental mercury vapor from dental amalgam | Chapter 4, section 4.3 |
The source document for this Digest states:
The chapter [4.2 of the full assessment
] gives examples of data on total mercury and methylmercury exposures primarily from fish diets, but also other sources in different parts of the world, including Sweden, Finland, the United States of America (USA), the Arctic, Japan, China, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Republic of Korea, Philippines, the Amazonas and French Guyana. For example, in a study of a representative group of about 1700 women in the USA (aged 16-49 years) for years 1999-2000, about 8 percent of the women had mercury concentrations in blood and hair exceeding the levels corresponding to the US EPA’s reference dose (an estimate of a safe dose). As shown in the chapter, data indicate exposures are generally higher in Greenland, Japan and some other areas as compared to the USA. In some of these countries and areas, local and regional mercury depositions have affected the mercury contamination levels over the years and countermeasures have been taken during the last decades to reduce national emissions. Mercury emissions are, however, distributed over long distances in the atmosphere and oceans. This means that even countries with minimal mercury emissions, and other areas situated remotely from dense human activity, may be adversely affected. For example, high mercury exposures have been observed in the Arctic far distances from any significant sources.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 4, paragraph 64 & 65
For more information, see Chapter 4: Current mercury exposure and risk evaluations for human health
The source document for this Digest states:
Fish are an extremely important component of the human diet in many parts of the world and provide nutrients (such as protein, omega-3 fatty acids and others) that are not easily replaced. Mercury is a major threat to this food supply. Certainly, fish with low methylmercury levels are intrinsically more healthful for consumers than fish with higher levels of methylmercury, if all other factors are equal.
There is limited laboratory evidence suggesting that several dietary components might reduce (e.g. selenium, vitamin E, omega-3 fatty acids) or enhance (e.g. alcohol) mercury’s toxicity for some endpoints. However, conclusions cannot be drawn from these data at this time.
Data on mercury concentrations in fish have been submitted from a number of nations and international organisations. Additionally, many investigations of mercury levels in fish are reported in the literature. Submitted data, giving examples of mercury concentrations in fish from various locations in the world, are summarised in the chapter. The mercury concentrations in various fish species are generally from about 0.05 to 1.4 milligrams of mercury per kilogram of fish tissue (mg/kg) depending on factors such as pH and redox potential of the water, and species, age and size of the fish. Since mercury biomagnifies in the aquatic food web, fish higher on the food chain (or of higher trophic level) tend to have higher levels of mercury. Hence, large predatory fish, such as king mackeral, pike, shark, swordfish, walleye, barracuda, large tuna (as opposed to the small tuna usually used for canned tuna), scabbard and marlin, as well as seals and toothed whales, contain the highest concentrations. The available data indicate that mercury is present all over the globe (especially in fish) in concentrations that adversely affects human beings and wildlife. These levels have led to consumption advisories (for fish, and sometimes marine mammals) in a number of countries, warning people, especially sensitive subgroups (such as pregnant women and young children), to limit or avoid consumption of certain types of fish from various waterbodies. Moderate consumption of fish (with low mercury levels) is not likely to result in exposures of concern. However, people who consume higher amounts of contaminated fish or marine mammals may be highly exposed to mercury and are therefore at risk.
Source & ©: UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, Summary of the Report,
Chapter 3 & 4, paragraphs 61, 62 and 66
For more information, see Chapter 4: Current mercury exposure and risk evaluations for human health
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