Forests and Agriculture in the world in 2016 : the land-use challenges and opportunities.

1. Introduction

Forests are more than just trees; they are fundamental for food security and improved livelihoods. A forest is defined by the FAO as a land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover of more than 10 % or trees being able to reach these dimensions. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.

Forests can increase the resilience of communities and improve human well-being by providing food, wood energy, shelter, fodder and fiber as well as by generating income and employment to allow communities and societies to prosper, and finally by harboring biodiversity. They can support sustainable agriculture and increase agricultural productivity by stabilizing soils and climate, and by regulating water flows.

The world’s population is increasing, and meeting the needs of everyone can be a challenge. In this perspective, there is a need for a globally integrated approach. Accordingly, this report explores the challenges and opportunities represented by the complex interrelationship between forests, agriculture, and sustainable development. In 2015, the UN leaders adopted a series of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030 as a plan for action for people, the planet and prosperity¹. The food security and the sustainable management of the world’s forests are central through the achievement of the following two SDGs:

• SDG 2 – “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture”; and,
• SDG 15 – “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”.

That same year the World Forestry Congress made the Durban Declaration which highlights the significant role of forests in achieving the SDGs and sets out a vision for the way forests can contribute. This report demonstrates that for achieving these SDGs, the sustainable management of both forests and agriculture, and their integration in land-use plans, is essential to ensure food security and to tackle climate change. Forests can indeed help address the challenges brought by climate change, and properly managed forests can have an important role in absorbing carbon while providing other environmental services. The challenge today is to encourage positive trends recorded in some countries - especially low-income countries - in which food insecurity is still rife and where forests are still being lost.

2. How are forests doing in the world?

Some estimates suggest that over the last 5000 years, surface covered by forests declined by 1.8 billion hectares, that is about half of the total area of forests today. Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that much of this forest loss was associated with population increases, and demand for land for crops and grazing, along with unsustainable levels of exploitation of forest resources; for instance, for fuel or shipbuilding.

More specifically, in the 19th and 20th century, expansion of agricultural land remained the main driver of deforestation, together with the expansion of cities, and the development of infrastructure and mining. Deforestation was greater in the temperate regions until the late 19th century, and is now greatest in the tropical regions.

In the period from 1990 to 2015, global forest area has declined by 129 million hectares (3.1 percent) and is now just under 4 billion hectares with 93 countries recording net forest losses (totaling 242 million hectares), and 88 countries net gains in forest area (totaling almost 113 million hectares), which were particularly evident in high-income countries. In tropical regions, over the 2000-2010 period there was a net loss of forests of 7 million hectares per year and a growth of agricultural land by 6 million hectares per year.

Although the rate of global net forest loss slowed down from an average of 7.3 million hectares per year in the 1990s to 3.3 million hectares per year in 2010–2015, deforestation remains a matter of deep concern. Global forest area has declined by 129 million hectares (3.1 percent) in the period from 1990 to 2015 and is now just under 4 billion hectares with 93 countries recording net forest losses (totaling 242 million hectares), and 88 countries net gains in forest area (totaling almost 113 million hectares), which were particularly evident in high-income countries. In 2010–2015 forest losses (most of which was natural forest) were offset partially by a combination of natural expansion, often on abandoned agricultural land (2.2 million hectares per year), and the establishment of planted forests (3.1 million hectares per year.

 

Commercial agriculture was responsible for 40 percent of the deforestation over that period, and subsistence agriculture for 33 percent, with large variation across regions.

1. In Southeast Asia, oil-palm plantations have replaced substantial areas of natural forests;
2. In Africa, it is the small-scale subsistence farming that is the dominant driver of deforestation. In poorer countries, the increase of land area devoted to agriculture was mainly driven by population increase in rural areas. In boreal and temperate regions, there was net growth of forests during that period, which was due in part to the expansion of forests into abandoned rangeland and farm land in regions that were part of the former Soviet Union.

3. What are the underlying factors affecting the loss of forests?

Underlying factors affecting forest conversion to agriculture include population growth, changing food consumption patterns, agricultural development, land tenure, governance of land-use change, changing markets, technological improvements, and active policy interventions.

Global population has grown by 37 % since 1990, and food consumption has increased by 40 %. Food consumption will continue to increase as the population grows and as food consumption patterns change. Demand for land to produce other products such as biofuels is also likely to increase. Food security is increasingly tied to international trading relationships, as is the vulnerability of forests, as agriculture in lower-income countries often develops in response to the demands of higher- income countries.

Poverty and hunger, perpetuated by a lack of economic opportunity, force poor people to exploit the natural resources around them. Although women tend to commercialize forest products less than men, the sale of forest products can be an essential source of cash income for women, who lack many of the opportunities for generating cash income commonly available to men. Forest loss, therefore, is a chronic feature in many low income, food-deficit countries where government investment in agriculture is low.

GreenFacts note: Production of biofuels also affect agriculture practices and, indirectly forests: see GreenFacts' Biofuels study

Underlying factors affecting the conversion of forests to agriculture include population growth and changing food consumption patterns; agricultural developments, such as changing markets, technological improvements and active policy interventions; land-tenure security; and the governance of land- use change.

Anyway, the global demand for food and for agricultural production will continue to rise as populations increase. Technological improvements can increase global supply by increasing productivity, but there is a clear need for a strategic, integrated approach to agriculture, forestry and other natural-resource policies. This integrated approach can help address the drivers of deforestation and conflicts over land use, capitalize on the full range of economic, social and environmental benefits of integrating forests with agriculture, and maintain multiple forest services in the landscape context.

4. What governments should do to manage deforestation and land use change?

Halting the loss of forests will benefit hundreds of millions of people, including many of the world’s poorest people, whose livelihoods depend on forest goods and environmental services. It will also help combat climate change, protect habitats for 75 percent of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, and maintain ecosystem resilience – thereby supporting sustainable agriculture.

De facto, rules often have a strong influence on policy outcomes, especially where formal policies fail to provide adequate guidance, are weakly implemented, or do not conform with legitimate stakeholder needs. However, national policies and land management decisions can significantly affect patterns of land-use change. Adjusting support for commercial agriculture by introducing environmental safeguards such as cross-compliance measures can help avoid forest loss, especially in those countries where largescale agricultural subsidies have had a significant impact on deforestation.

Public expenditure on forests is a good indicator of a country’s commitment to sustainable forest management. China, Egypt, India, Iran, Kuwait, Mexico, Morocco and Tunisia, for example, have all launched national afforestation or forest rehabilitation programmes.

Land-use planning is an institutional mechanism that can be used by countries to balance competing land uses among stakeholders. It involves the systematic and iterative assessment of land and water potential in order to select and adopt the best land-use options and to create an enabling environment for the sustainable development of land resources.

Although most countries have formal policies for their forest and agriculture sectors, there is an increasing need for policies on land use change that take into account both the forest and agriculture sectors in light of recent international agreements, such as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change. For example, the expansion of agricultural land may be promoted in response to a need to increase food production or agricultural export revenues, and increases in forest area may be promoted as a way to improve livelihoods, protect biodiversity and deliver environmental services. These policies are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

Better coordination between policies on forests, agriculture, food, land use, rural development, water and climate change is key to reduce the complexity of managing that are often conflicting needs. Such coordination would include setting cross-sectoral priorities or strategic targets for land-use change, and appropriate institutional arrangements.

The report also underlines that a comprehensive and exhaustive legal and regulatory framework cannot, in itself, prevent illegal forest conversion. While clear procedures and mechanisms are essential, they are of little value if they are unenforced or implemented ineffectively. The sound governance and management of land-use change requires policies that reflect national priorities and that are consistent, based on reliable evidence, and effectively implemented.

Such policies need to be supported by appropriate tools and methodologies (e.g. land suitability assessments and land-use planning) to assist decision-makers in targeting their interventions and to guide future land use.

However, in case of an uncoordinated approach, there is a risk that different ministries and government agencies use different criteria for planning. This is especially the case if agriculture and forests are managed by different departments, and such a risk of incoordination is not uncommon.

The report also underlines that a comprehensive and exhaustive legal and regulatory framework cannot, in itself, prevent illegal forest conversion. While clear procedures and mechanisms are essential, they are of little value if they are unenforced or implemented ineffectively.

Land-use planning is an institutional mechanism that can be used by countries to balance competing land uses among stakeholders. It involves the systematic and iterative assessment of land and water potential in order to select and adopt the best land-use options and to create an enabling environment for the sustainable development of land resources.

5. How can both food security and forest growth be achieved?

Halting the loss of forests will benefit hundreds of millions of people, in particular many of the world’s poorest people, whose livelihoods depend on forest goods and environmental services. It will also help combat climate change, protect habitats for 75 % of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, and maintain ecosystem resilience – thereby supporting sustainable agriculture.

One of the main drivers of deforestation is the conversion of forest land to agriculture, but measures aimed at improving food security need not to cause deforestation. Food security is defined as the state “when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Case studies in several countries show that economic reforms can help increase such food security while also maintaining or even increasing forest cover.

Market-oriented agriculture policies, with social and environmental safeguards, have helped increase productivity through increased investment, especially by the private sector, without requiring expansion of agricultural land to boost production. Effective land-use policies recognize the full economic, social and environmental values of forests, including their role in delivering wider economic development and poverty reduction programmes.

According to the report, private governance has become more prominent in promoting sustainable land use, with an increasing number of private companies voluntarily committing to eliminate deforestation from their supply chains. Initiatives include voluntary certification schemes, such as those of the Forest Stewardship Council, the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, and the Rainforest Alliance Certified Coffee Farms. The Consumer Goods Forum (CGF), which represents 400 companies in 70 countries, has published sustainable sourcing guidelines for palm oil and soy with the soy moratorium in Brazil, under which major soybean traders have agreed not to purchase soy grown on lands deforested in the Brazilian Amazon after July 2006.

Effective and inclusive legal and institutional frameworks provide predictable and secure land and forest tenure, with rights to trees, tree products and services, and measures to regulate land-use change effectively. Building the capacity of producers and community organizations contributes to improved institutional frameworks.

Giving the management rights of forest to local communities and smallholders helps improve access to forest benefits, leading in turn to greater recognition of the value of forests. Effective collaborative forest management requires that public institutions and community organizations understand their roles and have the capacity to perform them.

6. Are there already positive experiences of sustainable management of forests?

This FAO report describes case studies, in Chile, Costa Rica, the Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Tunisia, Viet Nam and the Republic of Korea, which all show how it is possible to improve food security through integrated landscape management.

These case studies revealed the importance of four common themes that need to be combined:

1. Favourable economic conditions in a market-oriented agricultural policy that includes social and environmental safeguards;
2. An effective legal and institutional framework of right policy instruments that consider the agriculture and forest sectors in a balanced way to both increase agricultural productivity and promote sustainable forest management while recognizing the full economic, social and environmental benefits of forests;
3. Devolving in this context forest management rights to local communities and promoting integrated land use;
4. Providing adequate funding for implementation of these policies.

 

Meanwhile, a number of these case studies suggest that the development of market-oriented and open agricultural economies should feature complementary social and environmental safeguards, for example to protect vulnerable households from the impacts of global market fluctuations and to prevent environmental damage from more intensive agricultural production.

7. Conclusions: how can forests and agriculture grow together?

Global forest area has declined by 129 million hectares (3.1 percent) in the period from 1990 to 2015 and is now just under 4 billion hectares. Although the rate of global net forest loss slowed down from an average of 7.3 million hectares per year in the 1990s to 3.3 million hectares per year in 2010–2015, deforestation remains a matter of deep concern. Halting the loss of forests will benefit hundreds of millions of people, including many of the world’s poorest people, whose livelihoods depend on forest goods and environmental services. It will also help combat climate change, protect habitats for 75 percent of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, and maintain ecosystem resilience – thereby supporting sustainable agriculture.

Although food security, sustainable agriculture and sustainable forest management are all global priorities, the analysis of policy documents suggests that decisions on land use and natural-resource priorities are not always addressed in an integrated way at the national level. There is a need to improve coordination between policies on forests, agriculture, food, land use, rural development and national development.

For example, agriculture policies should be more explicit about the potential implications of food production strategies for forests and sustainable land management. Several case studies highlighted the importance of recognizing the value of forests, and the importance of agriculture and food security in wider national economic development, rural development and poverty reduction strategies.

In this context, the report identified nine key points or “messages”:

a) On the global challenges:

1. Highly productive landscapes managed sustainably are required to meet the world’s increasing demand for food;
2. Food security can be achieved through agricultural intensification and other measures such as social protection rather than through expansion of agricultural areas at the expense of forests,.
3. There is an urgent need to promote more positive interactions between agriculture and forestry because agriculture remains the most significant driver of global deforestation;
4. Wider poverty alleviation and rural development measures should be implemented where local subsistence agriculture is the principal driver of land-use change alongside actions to improve local agricultural, agroforestry and other land-use practices;

b) On the strategy allowing to reach the objectives:

1. Management in forests of water cycle, soil conservation, carbon sequstration and natural habitats protection is crucial (including for pollinisators) for such sustainable agriculture and food security;
2. Integrated land-use planning should include meaningful stakeholder participation to ensure the legitimacy of land use plans and obtain stakeholder buy-in for their implementation and monitoring;

c) On the required associated legal and political means:

1. As their core elements are “integrated and indivisible”, progress in all areas should be made simultaneously of the 17 sustainable Development Goals (SDGs);
2. Improved coordination is required between policies on forests, agriculture, food, land use, rural development and legal frameworks governing land-use change, secure and land-tenure systems that recognize traditional customary rights;
3. Regulation of change is needed with appropriate social and environmental safeguards and private governance initiatives and where large-scale commercial agriculture is the principal driver of land-use change.

¹ https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300